Second Language Acquisition: An Overview and Theoretical Background
Second language acquisition encompasses various disciplines including educational linguistics, psychology and education. Second language acquisition, according to Stephen Krashen (1982), concerns the specifics of the learning of a second language outside of, or simultaneous to, the first language. Essentially it pertains to learning any language in addition to the first language / native tongue. Mistakes and errors frequently arise due to interference from the learner’s first language, an influence that tends to be particularly strong in adults learning a second language. One of the most effective skills to develop for acquiring vocabulary, grammar, and writing ability is reading. Moreover, interaction with the second language is a fundamental condition for its acquisition. Interlanguage is a unique linguistic system created in the minds of second language learners. It is important to realize that interlanguage is not simply a set of mistakes. It is a language with its own governing rules in place. Interlanguage is shaped by three processes: language transfer, in which structures from their first language are transferred; generalization, which occurs when a learner makes a sweeping application of familiar second language rules; and simplification, which occurs when a learner reduces their use of the second language to simplify their communication and sounds similar to when an adult speaks to or is with a child. It is be called pidgin when people communicate minimally in a mixed and simplified language. Errors made during second language acquisition tend to fall into two categories: morpheme errors and the overgeneralization of grammatical rules. Sociocultural theory emphasizes that linguistic knowledge is distinct from other knowledge types because it is deeply embedded in social interaction and contextual factors. Learners usually acquire a second language in stages as they develop language proficiency. During the preproduction stage, learners learn approximately 500 words silently—often referred to as a silent period. In the early production stage, learners begin to speak using one or two words, and have around 600 words. At the speech emergence stage, learners, who have around a vocabulary of 3,000 words, can start putting words together in phrases and in simple sentences. With intermediate fluency (and around a 6,000 word vocabulary), learners can also use more complex structures but errors likely still exist. Finally, advanced fluency may be reached after five to ten years of learning, enabling near-native proficiency in grammar, pronunciation, and communication. Despite progress, grammatical structures, grammar rules, and pronunciation remain the most difficult aspects to master, especially at advanced stages. Achieving full mastery requires considerable time and consistent exposure to the language.
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